1. Origin of the Mughals

• Mughals = derived from Mongols
• Genghis Khan united Mongol tribes → established the Mongol Empire (13th–14th century).
• Timur, a Barlas Turk, claimed descent via marriage and declared sovereignty.
• Babur, descendant of Genghis Khan, founded the Mughal Empire by defeating Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat (1526).

2. Babur (1526–1530)

Background

• Timur had annexed parts of Punjab; Babur saw these as his rightful inheritance.
• Looked to India for wealth, refuge, and a base against the Uzbeks.
• Invited by Daulat Khan Lodi and Rana Sanga to invade India.

Major Battles

• Panipat (1526) – Babur defeats Ibrahim Lodi.
• Khanwa (1527) – Defeats Rana Sanga; secured Delhi–Agra region.
• Chanderi (1528) – Defeats Medini Rai; captures Chanderi.
• Ghaghara (1529) – Campaign against Afghans; truce allowed them to rule Bihar.

Other Points

• Died 26 December 1530.
• An orthodox Sunni but not a bigot.
• Wrote Tuzuk-i-Baburi (Turkish).

Significance of His Conquest

• Brought Kabul & Qandhar into the North Indian empire → secured the NW frontier.
• Increased India’s trade with China and the Mediterranean.
• Defeat of Lodis + Rajput confederacy → foundation of an all-India Mughal Empire.
• Popularised artillery & gunpowder warfare.
• Built a strong crown-centric state.

3. Humayun (1530–1540; 1555–1556)

Challenges

• Infant empire consolidation.
• The Timurid tradition of dividing the empire among brothers.
• Afghan hostility.
• Threat of Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.

Campaigns

• Defeated Bahadur Shah; briefly held Gujarat & Malwa; lost soon after.
• Sher Shah rose while Humayun was in Gujarat.

Defeat

• Battle of Kannauj (1540) → Sher Shah defeated Humayun.
• Humayun became a king without a kingdom; fled to Iran.

Reasons for Defeat

• Misjudged Afghan unity under Sher Shah.
• Faulty Bengal campaign.
• No support from brothers.

Return

• With the Sur empire’s breaking (1555), he recovered Delhi.
• Died in 1556 from a fall.
• Tomb built by Bega Begum.

4. Sur Empire (1540–1555)

Sher Shah (1540–1545)

• Ruled the strongest empire since Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
• Added Malwa, Rajasthan.
• Succeeded by Islam Shah (till 1553).
• Succession struggles → fall of the Sur rule.

Sher Shah’s Contributions

• Restored law and order.
• Improved communication networks; rebuilt the Grand Trunk Road.
• Built sarais & inns → many became qasbas.
• Currency reforms, standard weights & measures.
• Land revenue system:
  • Measured sown land.
  • State’s share = one-third of the average produce.
• Sasaram tomb = culmination of Sultanate style, start of new Mughal style.

5. Akbar (1556–1605)

Expansion

• Won the Second Battle of Panipat (Bairam Khan vs Hemu).
• Conquered Ajmer, Malwa, Garha-Katanga, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Bengal.
• Rebellions in 1580–81 were suppressed by Todar Mal, Man Singh, etc.

Frontier & Deccan Policy

• Secured the North-West frontier due to the Uzbek threat.
• Captured Odisha, Dacca → political integration of North India.
• Entered Deccan due to:
  • Sectarian rivalries,
  • Portuguese activities & proselytization.
• Captured Khandesh (1601), Berar, Ahmadnagar, and parts of Telangana.

Akbar’s Land Revenue System

Dahsala / Zabti

• 10-year average of produce + prices calculated.
• State share = one-third, paid in cash.
• Linked with Todar Mal.

Other Systems

• Batai/Ghalla-bakshi: divide produce in proportion; cash or kind.
• Nasaq: another assessment method.
• Taccavi loans for peasants.
• Land classified by quality.

Mansabdari System

• Officers allotted ranks (mansab) from 10 to 5000 (later 7000).
• Rank determined:
  • Zat (personal status),
  • Sawar (cavalry quota).
• Maintained 2 horses per cavalryman.
• Paid via jagirs or sometimes in cash.
• Crucial for both the army organisation and the nobility structure.

Rajput Policy

• Continued Humayun’s alliance policy.
• Matrimony is not compulsory.
• Only Mewar (Rana Pratap) resisted.
• Rajputs were treated at par with Mughal nobles.
• Cemented by religious tolerance.
• Continued by Jahangir & Shah Jahan.

Religious Policy

• Based on sulh-i-kul — universal toleration.
• Built Ibadat Khana (1575) at Fatehpur Sikri.
• Attempted Tauhid-i-Ilahi (Divine Monotheism).
• Reforms:
  • Restricted sati; widow remarriage legalized.
  • Marriage age → girls 14, boys 16.
  • Restricted wine & spirits.
  • Revised education → moral & secular subjects.

6. Jahangir (1605–1627)

Achievements

• Settled the Mewar dispute; strengthened Rajput alliance.
• Subjugated the Deccan but avoided deep involvement.
• Suppressed the Afghan rebellion in Bengal.

Issues

• Persia captured Qandhar.
• Shah Jahan refused to go → rebelled due to court intrigues.
• Jahangir’s declining health further weakened control.

7. Shah Jahan (1628–1658)

Deccan Policy

• Needed control over Ahmadnagar → sought alliance with Bijapur.
• Bijapur later switched sides → Mughals failed.
• Shifted focus to Bijapur; later, both signed the Treaty of 1636.
• Mughal suzerainty was established in the Deccan.
• The rise of Shahji and Shivaji + Golconda nobles, kept the region unstable.
• Arrival of Aurangzeb as Deccan viceroy deepened the crisis.

Administration

• Akbar’s system largely continued.
• Mansabdari modified:
  • Jahangir: introduced du-aspah sih-aspah.
  • Shah Jahan: reduced troop numbers due to financial stress.
• Despite issues, the system worked due to strong wazirs.

8. Aurangzeb (1658–1707)

Accession

• Won the succession war; imprisoned Shah Jahan.

Empire

• The Mughal Empire reached its maximum territorial extent.
• From Kashmir → Jinji, Hindukush → Chittagong.

Religious & Social Policies

• Orthodox Sunni.
• Demolished temples; re-imposed jizyah (1679) → resentment.
• The Rajput alliance weakened due to harsh policies in Marwar & Mewar.

Conflicts

• Fought Jats, Afghans, Sikhs.
• Gave Marathas space during the crucial phase of consolidation.

Deccan Campaign (1681–1707)

• Defeated Bijapur & Golconda.
• The occupied parts of the Maratha territory were occupied, but the Marathas were not subdued.

Death

• Died 1707 → empire internally strained and destabilised.